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# [`urllib.request`](#module-urllib.request "urllib.request: Extensible library for opening URLs.") --- 用于打開 URL 的可擴展庫
**源碼:** [Lib/urllib/request.py](https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/urllib/request.py) \[https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/urllib/request.py\]
- - - - - -
[`urllib.request`](#module-urllib.request "urllib.request: Extensible library for opening URLs.") 模塊定義了適用于在各種復雜情況下打開 URL (主要為 HTTP) 的函數和類 --- 例如基本和精簡驗證，重定向、cookies 及其它。
參見
[Requests 包](http://docs.python-requests.org/) \[http://docs.python-requests.org/\] 推薦用于更高層級的 HTTP 客戶端接口。
The [`urllib.request`](#module-urllib.request "urllib.request: Extensible library for opening URLs.") module defines the following functions:
`urllib.request.``urlopen`(*url*, *data=None*, \[*timeout*, \]*\**, *cafile=None*, *capath=None*, *cadefault=False*, *context=None*)Open the URL *url*, which can be either a string or a [`Request`](#urllib.request.Request "urllib.request.Request") object.
*data* must be an object specifying additional data to be sent to the server, or `None` if no such data is needed. See [`Request`](#urllib.request.Request "urllib.request.Request")for details.
urllib.request module uses HTTP/1.1 and includes `Connection:close` header in its HTTP requests.
The optional *timeout* parameter specifies a timeout in seconds for blocking operations like the connection attempt (if not specified, the global default timeout setting will be used). This actually only works for HTTP, HTTPS and FTP connections.
If *context* is specified, it must be a [`ssl.SSLContext`](ssl.xhtml#ssl.SSLContext "ssl.SSLContext") instance describing the various SSL options. See [`HTTPSConnection`](http.client.xhtml#http.client.HTTPSConnection "http.client.HTTPSConnection")for more details.
The optional *cafile* and *capath* parameters specify a set of trusted CA certificates for HTTPS requests. *cafile* should point to a single file containing a bundle of CA certificates, whereas *capath* should point to a directory of hashed certificate files. More information can be found in [`ssl.SSLContext.load_verify_locations()`](ssl.xhtml#ssl.SSLContext.load_verify_locations "ssl.SSLContext.load_verify_locations").
The *cadefault* parameter is ignored.
This function always returns an object which can work as a [context manager](../glossary.xhtml#term-context-manager) and has methods such as
- `geturl()` --- return the URL of the resource retrieved, commonly used to determine if a redirect was followed
- `info()` --- return the meta-information of the page, such as headers, in the form of an [`email.message_from_string()`](email.parser.xhtml#email.message_from_string "email.message_from_string") instance (see [Quick Reference to HTTP Headers](http://jkorpela.fi/http.html) \[http://jkorpela.fi/http.html\])
- `getcode()` -- return the HTTP status code of the response.
For HTTP and HTTPS URLs, this function returns a [`http.client.HTTPResponse`](http.client.xhtml#http.client.HTTPResponse "http.client.HTTPResponse") object slightly modified. In addition to the three new methods above, the msg attribute contains the same information as the [`reason`](http.client.xhtml#http.client.HTTPResponse.reason "http.client.HTTPResponse.reason")attribute --- the reason phrase returned by server --- instead of the response headers as it is specified in the documentation for [`HTTPResponse`](http.client.xhtml#http.client.HTTPResponse "http.client.HTTPResponse").
For FTP, file, and data URLs and requests explicitly handled by legacy [`URLopener`](#urllib.request.URLopener "urllib.request.URLopener") and [`FancyURLopener`](#urllib.request.FancyURLopener "urllib.request.FancyURLopener") classes, this function returns a `urllib.response.addinfourl` object.
Raises [`URLError`](urllib.error.xhtml#urllib.error.URLError "urllib.error.URLError") on protocol errors.
Note that `None` may be returned if no handler handles the request (though the default installed global [`OpenerDirector`](#urllib.request.OpenerDirector "urllib.request.OpenerDirector") uses [`UnknownHandler`](#urllib.request.UnknownHandler "urllib.request.UnknownHandler") to ensure this never happens).
In addition, if proxy settings are detected (for example, when a `*_proxy`environment variable like `http_proxy` is set), [`ProxyHandler`](#urllib.request.ProxyHandler "urllib.request.ProxyHandler") is default installed and makes sure the requests are handled through the proxy.
The legacy `urllib.urlopen` function from Python 2.6 and earlier has been discontinued; [`urllib.request.urlopen()`](#urllib.request.urlopen "urllib.request.urlopen") corresponds to the old `urllib2.urlopen`. Proxy handling, which was done by passing a dictionary parameter to `urllib.urlopen`, can be obtained by using [`ProxyHandler`](#urllib.request.ProxyHandler "urllib.request.ProxyHandler") objects.
在 3.2 版更改: *cafile* and *capath* were added.
在 3.2 版更改: HTTPS virtual hosts are now supported if possible (that is, if [`ssl.HAS_SNI`](ssl.xhtml#ssl.HAS_SNI "ssl.HAS_SNI") is true).
3\.2 新版功能: *data* can be an iterable object.
在 3.3 版更改: *cadefault* was added.
在 3.4.3 版更改: *context* was added.
3\.6 版后已移除: *cafile*, *capath* and *cadefault* are deprecated in favor of *context*. Please use [`ssl.SSLContext.load_cert_chain()`](ssl.xhtml#ssl.SSLContext.load_cert_chain "ssl.SSLContext.load_cert_chain") instead, or let [`ssl.create_default_context()`](ssl.xhtml#ssl.create_default_context "ssl.create_default_context") select the system's trusted CA certificates for you.
`urllib.request.``install_opener`(*opener*)Install an [`OpenerDirector`](#urllib.request.OpenerDirector "urllib.request.OpenerDirector") instance as the default global opener. Installing an opener is only necessary if you want urlopen to use that opener; otherwise, simply call [`OpenerDirector.open()`](#urllib.request.OpenerDirector.open "urllib.request.OpenerDirector.open") instead of [`urlopen()`](#urllib.request.urlopen "urllib.request.urlopen"). The code does not check for a real [`OpenerDirector`](#urllib.request.OpenerDirector "urllib.request.OpenerDirector"), and any class with the appropriate interface will work.
`urllib.request.``build_opener`(\[*handler*, *...*\])Return an [`OpenerDirector`](#urllib.request.OpenerDirector "urllib.request.OpenerDirector") instance, which chains the handlers in the order given. *handler*s can be either instances of [`BaseHandler`](#urllib.request.BaseHandler "urllib.request.BaseHandler"), or subclasses of [`BaseHandler`](#urllib.request.BaseHandler "urllib.request.BaseHandler") (in which case it must be possible to call the constructor without any parameters). Instances of the following classes will be in front of the *handler*s, unless the *handler*s contain them, instances of them or subclasses of them: [`ProxyHandler`](#urllib.request.ProxyHandler "urllib.request.ProxyHandler") (if proxy settings are detected), [`UnknownHandler`](#urllib.request.UnknownHandler "urllib.request.UnknownHandler"), [`HTTPHandler`](#urllib.request.HTTPHandler "urllib.request.HTTPHandler"), [`HTTPDefaultErrorHandler`](#urllib.request.HTTPDefaultErrorHandler "urllib.request.HTTPDefaultErrorHandler"), [`HTTPRedirectHandler`](#urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler "urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler"), [`FTPHandler`](#urllib.request.FTPHandler "urllib.request.FTPHandler"), [`FileHandler`](#urllib.request.FileHandler "urllib.request.FileHandler"), [`HTTPErrorProcessor`](#urllib.request.HTTPErrorProcessor "urllib.request.HTTPErrorProcessor").
If the Python installation has SSL support (i.e., if the [`ssl`](ssl.xhtml#module-ssl "ssl: TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects") module can be imported), [`HTTPSHandler`](#urllib.request.HTTPSHandler "urllib.request.HTTPSHandler") will also be added.
A [`BaseHandler`](#urllib.request.BaseHandler "urllib.request.BaseHandler") subclass may also change its `handler_order`attribute to modify its position in the handlers list.
`urllib.request.``pathname2url`(*path*)Convert the pathname *path* from the local syntax for a path to the form used in the path component of a URL. This does not produce a complete URL. The return value will already be quoted using the [`quote()`](urllib.parse.xhtml#urllib.parse.quote "urllib.parse.quote") function.
`urllib.request.``url2pathname`(*path*)Convert the path component *path* from a percent-encoded URL to the local syntax for a path. This does not accept a complete URL. This function uses [`unquote()`](urllib.parse.xhtml#urllib.parse.unquote "urllib.parse.unquote") to decode *path*.
`urllib.request.``getproxies`()This helper function returns a dictionary of scheme to proxy server URL mappings. It scans the environment for variables named `<scheme>_proxy`, in a case insensitive approach, for all operating systems first, and when it cannot find it, looks for proxy information from Mac OSX System Configuration for Mac OS X and Windows Systems Registry for Windows. If both lowercase and uppercase environment variables exist (and disagree), lowercase is preferred.
注解
If the environment variable `REQUEST_METHOD` is set, which usually indicates your script is running in a CGI environment, the environment variable `HTTP_PROXY` (uppercase `_PROXY`) will be ignored. This is because that variable can be injected by a client using the "Proxy:" HTTP header. If you need to use an HTTP proxy in a CGI environment, either use `ProxyHandler` explicitly, or make sure the variable name is in lowercase (or at least the `_proxy` suffix).
The following classes are provided:
*class* `urllib.request.``Request`(*url*, *data=None*, *headers={}*, *origin\_req\_host=None*, *unverifiable=False*, *method=None*)This class is an abstraction of a URL request.
*url* should be a string containing a valid URL.
*data* must be an object specifying additional data to send to the server, or `None` if no such data is needed. Currently HTTP requests are the only ones that use *data*. The supported object types include bytes, file-like objects, and iterables. If no `Content-Length` nor `Transfer-Encoding` header field has been provided, [`HTTPHandler`](#urllib.request.HTTPHandler "urllib.request.HTTPHandler") will set these headers according to the type of *data*. `Content-Length` will be used to send bytes objects, while `Transfer-Encoding: chunked` as specified in [**RFC 7230**](https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc7230.html) \[https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc7230.html\], Section 3.3.1 will be used to send files and other iterables.
For an HTTP POST request method, *data* should be a buffer in the standard *application/x-www-form-urlencoded* format. The [`urllib.parse.urlencode()`](urllib.parse.xhtml#urllib.parse.urlencode "urllib.parse.urlencode") function takes a mapping or sequence of 2-tuples and returns an ASCII string in this format. It should be encoded to bytes before being used as the *data* parameter.
*headers* should be a dictionary, and will be treated as if [`add_header()`](#urllib.request.Request.add_header "urllib.request.Request.add_header") was called with each key and value as arguments. This is often used to "spoof" the `User-Agent` header value, which is used by a browser to identify itself -- some HTTP servers only allow requests coming from common browsers as opposed to scripts. For example, Mozilla Firefox may identify itself as
```
"Mozilla/5.0
(X11; U; Linux i686) Gecko/20071127 Firefox/2.0.0.11"
```
, while [`urllib`](urllib.xhtml#module-urllib "urllib")'s default user agent string is `"Python-urllib/2.6"` (on Python 2.6).
An appropriate `Content-Type` header should be included if the *data*argument is present. If this header has not been provided and *data*is not None, `Content-Type: application/x-www-form-urlencoded` will be added as a default.
The final two arguments are only of interest for correct handling of third-party HTTP cookies:
*origin\_req\_host* should be the request-host of the origin transaction, as defined by [**RFC 2965**](https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2965.html) \[https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2965.html\]. It defaults to `http.cookiejar.request_host(self)`. This is the host name or IP address of the original request that was initiated by the user. For example, if the request is for an image in an HTML document, this should be the request-host of the request for the page containing the image.
*unverifiable* should indicate whether the request is unverifiable, as defined by [**RFC 2965**](https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2965.html) \[https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2965.html\]. It defaults to `False`. An unverifiable request is one whose URL the user did not have the option to approve. For example, if the request is for an image in an HTML document, and the user had no option to approve the automatic fetching of the image, this should be true.
*method* should be a string that indicates the HTTP request method that will be used (e.g. `'HEAD'`). If provided, its value is stored in the [`method`](#urllib.request.Request.method "urllib.request.Request.method") attribute and is used by [`get_method()`](#urllib.request.Request.get_method "urllib.request.Request.get_method"). The default is `'GET'` if *data* is `None` or `'POST'` otherwise. Subclasses may indicate a different default method by setting the [`method`](#urllib.request.Request.method "urllib.request.Request.method") attribute in the class itself.
注解
The request will not work as expected if the data object is unable to deliver its content more than once (e.g. a file or an iterable that can produce the content only once) and the request is retried for HTTP redirects or authentication. The *data* is sent to the HTTP server right away after the headers. There is no support for a 100-continue expectation in the library.
在 3.3 版更改: [`Request.method`](#urllib.request.Request.method "urllib.request.Request.method") argument is added to the Request class.
在 3.4 版更改: Default [`Request.method`](#urllib.request.Request.method "urllib.request.Request.method") may be indicated at the class level.
在 3.6 版更改: Do not raise an error if the `Content-Length` has not been provided and *data* is neither `None` nor a bytes object. Fall back to use chunked transfer encoding instead.
*class* `urllib.request.``OpenerDirector`The [`OpenerDirector`](#urllib.request.OpenerDirector "urllib.request.OpenerDirector") class opens URLs via [`BaseHandler`](#urllib.request.BaseHandler "urllib.request.BaseHandler")s chained together. It manages the chaining of handlers, and recovery from errors.
*class* `urllib.request.``BaseHandler`This is the base class for all registered handlers --- and handles only the simple mechanics of registration.
*class* `urllib.request.``HTTPDefaultErrorHandler`A class which defines a default handler for HTTP error responses; all responses are turned into [`HTTPError`](urllib.error.xhtml#urllib.error.HTTPError "urllib.error.HTTPError") exceptions.
*class* `urllib.request.``HTTPRedirectHandler`A class to handle redirections.
*class* `urllib.request.``HTTPCookieProcessor`(*cookiejar=None*)A class to handle HTTP Cookies.
*class* `urllib.request.``ProxyHandler`(*proxies=None*)Cause requests to go through a proxy. If *proxies* is given, it must be a dictionary mapping protocol names to URLs of proxies. The default is to read the list of proxies from the environment variables `<protocol>_proxy`. If no proxy environment variables are set, then in a Windows environment proxy settings are obtained from the registry's Internet Settings section, and in a Mac OS X environment proxy information is retrieved from the OS X System Configuration Framework.
To disable autodetected proxy pass an empty dictionary.
The `no_proxy` environment variable can be used to specify hosts which shouldn't be reached via proxy; if set, it should be a comma-separated list of hostname suffixes, optionally with `:port` appended, for example `cern.ch,ncsa.uiuc.edu,some.host:8080`.
> 注解
>
> `HTTP_PROXY` will be ignored if a variable `REQUEST_METHOD` is set; see the documentation on [`getproxies()`](#urllib.request.getproxies "urllib.request.getproxies").
*class* `urllib.request.``HTTPPasswordMgr`Keep a database of `(realm, uri) -> (user, password)` mappings.
*class* `urllib.request.``HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm`Keep a database of `(realm, uri) -> (user, password)` mappings. A realm of `None` is considered a catch-all realm, which is searched if no other realm fits.
*class* `urllib.request.``HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth`A variant of [`HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm`](#urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm "urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm") that also has a database of `uri -> is_authenticated` mappings. Can be used by a BasicAuth handler to determine when to send authentication credentials immediately instead of waiting for a `401` response first.
3\.5 新版功能.
*class* `urllib.request.``AbstractBasicAuthHandler`(*password\_mgr=None*)This is a mixin class that helps with HTTP authentication, both to the remote host and to a proxy. *password\_mgr*, if given, should be something that is compatible with [`HTTPPasswordMgr`](#urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr "urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr"); refer to section [HTTPPasswordMgr Objects](#http-password-mgr) for information on the interface that must be supported. If *passwd\_mgr* also provides `is_authenticated` and `update_authenticated` methods (see [HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth Objects](#http-password-mgr-with-prior-auth)), then the handler will use the `is_authenticated` result for a given URI to determine whether or not to send authentication credentials with the request. If `is_authenticated`returns `True` for the URI, credentials are sent. If `is_authenticated`is `False`, credentials are not sent, and then if a `401` response is received the request is re-sent with the authentication credentials. If authentication succeeds, `update_authenticated` is called to set `is_authenticated``True` for the URI, so that subsequent requests to the URI or any of its super-URIs will automatically include the authentication credentials.
3\.5 新版功能: Added `is_authenticated` support.
*class* `urllib.request.``HTTPBasicAuthHandler`(*password\_mgr=None*)Handle authentication with the remote host. *password\_mgr*, if given, should be something that is compatible with [`HTTPPasswordMgr`](#urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr "urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr"); refer to section [HTTPPasswordMgr Objects](#http-password-mgr) for information on the interface that must be supported. HTTPBasicAuthHandler will raise a [`ValueError`](exceptions.xhtml#ValueError "ValueError") when presented with a wrong Authentication scheme.
*class* `urllib.request.``ProxyBasicAuthHandler`(*password\_mgr=None*)Handle authentication with the proxy. *password\_mgr*, if given, should be something that is compatible with [`HTTPPasswordMgr`](#urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr "urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr"); refer to section [HTTPPasswordMgr Objects](#http-password-mgr) for information on the interface that must be supported.
*class* `urllib.request.``AbstractDigestAuthHandler`(*password\_mgr=None*)This is a mixin class that helps with HTTP authentication, both to the remote host and to a proxy. *password\_mgr*, if given, should be something that is compatible with [`HTTPPasswordMgr`](#urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr "urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr"); refer to section [HTTPPasswordMgr Objects](#http-password-mgr) for information on the interface that must be supported.
*class* `urllib.request.``HTTPDigestAuthHandler`(*password\_mgr=None*)Handle authentication with the remote host. *password\_mgr*, if given, should be something that is compatible with [`HTTPPasswordMgr`](#urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr "urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr"); refer to section [HTTPPasswordMgr Objects](#http-password-mgr) for information on the interface that must be supported. When both Digest Authentication Handler and Basic Authentication Handler are both added, Digest Authentication is always tried first. If the Digest Authentication returns a 40x response again, it is sent to Basic Authentication handler to Handle. This Handler method will raise a [`ValueError`](exceptions.xhtml#ValueError "ValueError") when presented with an authentication scheme other than Digest or Basic.
在 3.3 版更改: Raise [`ValueError`](exceptions.xhtml#ValueError "ValueError") on unsupported Authentication Scheme.
*class* `urllib.request.``ProxyDigestAuthHandler`(*password\_mgr=None*)Handle authentication with the proxy. *password\_mgr*, if given, should be something that is compatible with [`HTTPPasswordMgr`](#urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr "urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr"); refer to section [HTTPPasswordMgr Objects](#http-password-mgr) for information on the interface that must be supported.
*class* `urllib.request.``HTTPHandler`A class to handle opening of HTTP URLs.
*class* `urllib.request.``HTTPSHandler`(*debuglevel=0*, *context=None*, *check\_hostname=None*)A class to handle opening of HTTPS URLs. *context* and *check\_hostname*have the same meaning as in [`http.client.HTTPSConnection`](http.client.xhtml#http.client.HTTPSConnection "http.client.HTTPSConnection").
在 3.2 版更改: *context* and *check\_hostname* were added.
*class* `urllib.request.``FileHandler`Open local files.
*class* `urllib.request.``DataHandler`Open data URLs.
3\.4 新版功能.
*class* `urllib.request.``FTPHandler`Open FTP URLs.
*class* `urllib.request.``CacheFTPHandler`Open FTP URLs, keeping a cache of open FTP connections to minimize delays.
*class* `urllib.request.``UnknownHandler`A catch-all class to handle unknown URLs.
*class* `urllib.request.``HTTPErrorProcessor`Process HTTP error responses.
## Request Objects
The following methods describe [`Request`](#urllib.request.Request "urllib.request.Request")'s public interface, and so all may be overridden in subclasses. It also defines several public attributes that can be used by clients to inspect the parsed request.
`Request.``full_url`The original URL passed to the constructor.
在 3.4 版更改.
Request.full\_url is a property with setter, getter and a deleter. Getting [`full_url`](#urllib.request.Request.full_url "urllib.request.Request.full_url") returns the original request URL with the fragment, if it was present.
`Request.``type`The URI scheme.
`Request.``host`The URI authority, typically a host, but may also contain a port separated by a colon.
`Request.``origin_req_host`The original host for the request, without port.
`Request.``selector`The URI path. If the [`Request`](#urllib.request.Request "urllib.request.Request") uses a proxy, then selector will be the full URL that is passed to the proxy.
`Request.``data`The entity body for the request, or `None` if not specified.
在 3.4 版更改: Changing value of [`Request.data`](#urllib.request.Request.data "urllib.request.Request.data") now deletes "Content-Length" header if it was previously set or calculated.
`Request.``unverifiable`boolean, indicates whether the request is unverifiable as defined by [**RFC 2965**](https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2965.html) \[https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2965.html\].
`Request.``method`The HTTP request method to use. By default its value is [`None`](constants.xhtml#None "None"), which means that [`get_method()`](#urllib.request.Request.get_method "urllib.request.Request.get_method") will do its normal computation of the method to be used. Its value can be set (thus overriding the default computation in [`get_method()`](#urllib.request.Request.get_method "urllib.request.Request.get_method")) either by providing a default value by setting it at the class level in a [`Request`](#urllib.request.Request "urllib.request.Request") subclass, or by passing a value in to the [`Request`](#urllib.request.Request "urllib.request.Request") constructor via the *method*argument.
3\.3 新版功能.
在 3.4 版更改: A default value can now be set in subclasses; previously it could only be set via the constructor argument.
`Request.``get_method`()Return a string indicating the HTTP request method. If [`Request.method`](#urllib.request.Request.method "urllib.request.Request.method") is not `None`, return its value, otherwise return `'GET'` if [`Request.data`](#urllib.request.Request.data "urllib.request.Request.data") is `None`, or `'POST'` if it's not. This is only meaningful for HTTP requests.
在 3.3 版更改: get\_method now looks at the value of [`Request.method`](#urllib.request.Request.method "urllib.request.Request.method").
`Request.``add_header`(*key*, *val*)Add another header to the request. Headers are currently ignored by all handlers except HTTP handlers, where they are added to the list of headers sent to the server. Note that there cannot be more than one header with the same name, and later calls will overwrite previous calls in case the *key* collides. Currently, this is no loss of HTTP functionality, since all headers which have meaning when used more than once have a (header-specific) way of gaining the same functionality using only one header.
`Request.``add_unredirected_header`(*key*, *header*)Add a header that will not be added to a redirected request.
`Request.``has_header`(*header*)Return whether the instance has the named header (checks both regular and unredirected).
`Request.``remove_header`(*header*)Remove named header from the request instance (both from regular and unredirected headers).
3\.4 新版功能.
`Request.``get_full_url`()Return the URL given in the constructor.
在 3.4 版更改.
Returns [`Request.full_url`](#urllib.request.Request.full_url "urllib.request.Request.full_url")
`Request.``set_proxy`(*host*, *type*)Prepare the request by connecting to a proxy server. The *host* and *type* will replace those of the instance, and the instance's selector will be the original URL given in the constructor.
`Request.``get_header`(*header\_name*, *default=None*)Return the value of the given header. If the header is not present, return the default value.
`Request.``header_items`()Return a list of tuples (header\_name, header\_value) of the Request headers.
在 3.4 版更改: The request methods add\_data, has\_data, get\_data, get\_type, get\_host, get\_selector, get\_origin\_req\_host and is\_unverifiable that were deprecated since 3.3 have been removed.
## OpenerDirector Objects
[`OpenerDirector`](#urllib.request.OpenerDirector "urllib.request.OpenerDirector") instances have the following methods:
`OpenerDirector.``add_handler`(*handler*)*handler* should be an instance of [`BaseHandler`](#urllib.request.BaseHandler "urllib.request.BaseHandler"). The following methods are searched, and added to the possible chains (note that HTTP errors are a special case). Note that, in the following, *protocol* should be replaced with the actual protocol to handle, for example `http_response()` would be the HTTP protocol response handler. Also *type* should be replaced with the actual HTTP code, for example `http_error_404()` would handle HTTP 404 errors.
- `<protocol>_open()` --- signal that the handler knows how to open *protocol*URLs.
See [`BaseHandler.<protocol>_open()`](#protocol-open) for more information.
- `http_error_<type>()` --- signal that the handler knows how to handle HTTP errors with HTTP error code *type*.
See [`BaseHandler.http_error_<nnn>()`](#http-error-nnn) for more information.
- `<protocol>_error()` --- signal that the handler knows how to handle errors from (non-`http`) *protocol*.
- `<protocol>_request()` --- signal that the handler knows how to pre-process *protocol* requests.
See [`BaseHandler.<protocol>_request()`](#protocol-request) for more information.
- `<protocol>_response()` --- signal that the handler knows how to post-process *protocol* responses.
See [`BaseHandler.<protocol>_response()`](#protocol-response) for more information.
`OpenerDirector.``open`(*url*, *data=None*\[, *timeout*\])Open the given *url* (which can be a request object or a string), optionally passing the given *data*. Arguments, return values and exceptions raised are the same as those of [`urlopen()`](#urllib.request.urlopen "urllib.request.urlopen") (which simply calls the [`open()`](functions.xhtml#open "open")method on the currently installed global [`OpenerDirector`](#urllib.request.OpenerDirector "urllib.request.OpenerDirector")). The optional *timeout* parameter specifies a timeout in seconds for blocking operations like the connection attempt (if not specified, the global default timeout setting will be used). The timeout feature actually works only for HTTP, HTTPS and FTP connections).
`OpenerDirector.``error`(*proto*, *\*args*)Handle an error of the given protocol. This will call the registered error handlers for the given protocol with the given arguments (which are protocol specific). The HTTP protocol is a special case which uses the HTTP response code to determine the specific error handler; refer to the `http_error_<type>()`methods of the handler classes.
Return values and exceptions raised are the same as those of [`urlopen()`](#urllib.request.urlopen "urllib.request.urlopen").
OpenerDirector objects open URLs in three stages:
The order in which these methods are called within each stage is determined by sorting the handler instances.
1. Every handler with a method named like `<protocol>_request()` has that method called to pre-process the request.
2. Handlers with a method named like `<protocol>_open()` are called to handle the request. This stage ends when a handler either returns a non-[`None`](constants.xhtml#None "None")value (ie. a response), or raises an exception (usually [`URLError`](urllib.error.xhtml#urllib.error.URLError "urllib.error.URLError")). Exceptions are allowed to propagate.
In fact, the above algorithm is first tried for methods named `default_open()`. If all such methods return [`None`](constants.xhtml#None "None"), the algorithm is repeated for methods named like `<protocol>_open()`. If all such methods return [`None`](constants.xhtml#None "None"), the algorithm is repeated for methods named `unknown_open()`.
Note that the implementation of these methods may involve calls of the parent [`OpenerDirector`](#urllib.request.OpenerDirector "urllib.request.OpenerDirector") instance's [`open()`](#urllib.request.OpenerDirector.open "urllib.request.OpenerDirector.open") and [`error()`](#urllib.request.OpenerDirector.error "urllib.request.OpenerDirector.error") methods.
3. Every handler with a method named like `<protocol>_response()` has that method called to post-process the response.
## BaseHandler Objects
[`BaseHandler`](#urllib.request.BaseHandler "urllib.request.BaseHandler") objects provide a couple of methods that are directly useful, and others that are meant to be used by derived classes. These are intended for direct use:
`BaseHandler.``add_parent`(*director*)Add a director as parent.
`BaseHandler.``close`()Remove any parents.
The following attribute and methods should only be used by classes derived from [`BaseHandler`](#urllib.request.BaseHandler "urllib.request.BaseHandler").
注解
The convention has been adopted that subclasses defining `<protocol>_request()` or `<protocol>_response()` methods are named `*Processor`; all others are named `*Handler`.
`BaseHandler.``parent`A valid [`OpenerDirector`](#urllib.request.OpenerDirector "urllib.request.OpenerDirector"), which can be used to open using a different protocol, or handle errors.
`BaseHandler.``default_open`(*req*)This method is *not* defined in [`BaseHandler`](#urllib.request.BaseHandler "urllib.request.BaseHandler"), but subclasses should define it if they want to catch all URLs.
This method, if implemented, will be called by the parent [`OpenerDirector`](#urllib.request.OpenerDirector "urllib.request.OpenerDirector"). It should return a file-like object as described in the return value of the [`open()`](functions.xhtml#open "open") of [`OpenerDirector`](#urllib.request.OpenerDirector "urllib.request.OpenerDirector"), or `None`. It should raise [`URLError`](urllib.error.xhtml#urllib.error.URLError "urllib.error.URLError"), unless a truly exceptional thing happens (for example, [`MemoryError`](exceptions.xhtml#MemoryError "MemoryError") should not be mapped to `URLError`).
This method will be called before any protocol-specific open method.
`BaseHandler.<protocol>_open(req)`This method is *not* defined in [`BaseHandler`](#urllib.request.BaseHandler "urllib.request.BaseHandler"), but subclasses should define it if they want to handle URLs with the given protocol.
This method, if defined, will be called by the parent [`OpenerDirector`](#urllib.request.OpenerDirector "urllib.request.OpenerDirector"). Return values should be the same as for `default_open()`.
`BaseHandler.``unknown_open`(*req*)This method is *not* defined in [`BaseHandler`](#urllib.request.BaseHandler "urllib.request.BaseHandler"), but subclasses should define it if they want to catch all URLs with no specific registered handler to open it.
This method, if implemented, will be called by the [`parent`](#urllib.request.BaseHandler.parent "urllib.request.BaseHandler.parent")[`OpenerDirector`](#urllib.request.OpenerDirector "urllib.request.OpenerDirector"). Return values should be the same as for [`default_open()`](#urllib.request.BaseHandler.default_open "urllib.request.BaseHandler.default_open").
`BaseHandler.``http_error_default`(*req*, *fp*, *code*, *msg*, *hdrs*)This method is *not* defined in [`BaseHandler`](#urllib.request.BaseHandler "urllib.request.BaseHandler"), but subclasses should override it if they intend to provide a catch-all for otherwise unhandled HTTP errors. It will be called automatically by the [`OpenerDirector`](#urllib.request.OpenerDirector "urllib.request.OpenerDirector") getting the error, and should not normally be called in other circumstances.
*req* will be a [`Request`](#urllib.request.Request "urllib.request.Request") object, *fp* will be a file-like object with the HTTP error body, *code* will be the three-digit code of the error, *msg*will be the user-visible explanation of the code and *hdrs* will be a mapping object with the headers of the error.
Return values and exceptions raised should be the same as those of [`urlopen()`](#urllib.request.urlopen "urllib.request.urlopen").
`BaseHandler.http_error_<nnn>(req, fp, code, msg, hdrs)`*nnn* should be a three-digit HTTP error code. This method is also not defined in [`BaseHandler`](#urllib.request.BaseHandler "urllib.request.BaseHandler"), but will be called, if it exists, on an instance of a subclass, when an HTTP error with code *nnn* occurs.
Subclasses should override this method to handle specific HTTP errors.
Arguments, return values and exceptions raised should be the same as for `http_error_default()`.
`BaseHandler.<protocol>_request(req)`This method is *not* defined in [`BaseHandler`](#urllib.request.BaseHandler "urllib.request.BaseHandler"), but subclasses should define it if they want to pre-process requests of the given protocol.
This method, if defined, will be called by the parent [`OpenerDirector`](#urllib.request.OpenerDirector "urllib.request.OpenerDirector"). *req* will be a [`Request`](#urllib.request.Request "urllib.request.Request") object. The return value should be a [`Request`](#urllib.request.Request "urllib.request.Request") object.
`BaseHandler.<protocol>_response(req, response)`This method is *not* defined in [`BaseHandler`](#urllib.request.BaseHandler "urllib.request.BaseHandler"), but subclasses should define it if they want to post-process responses of the given protocol.
This method, if defined, will be called by the parent [`OpenerDirector`](#urllib.request.OpenerDirector "urllib.request.OpenerDirector"). *req* will be a [`Request`](#urllib.request.Request "urllib.request.Request") object. *response* will be an object implementing the same interface as the return value of [`urlopen()`](#urllib.request.urlopen "urllib.request.urlopen"). The return value should implement the same interface as the return value of [`urlopen()`](#urllib.request.urlopen "urllib.request.urlopen").
## HTTPRedirectHandler Objects
注解
Some HTTP redirections require action from this module's client code. If this is the case, [`HTTPError`](urllib.error.xhtml#urllib.error.HTTPError "urllib.error.HTTPError") is raised. See [**RFC 2616**](https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2616.html) \[https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2616.html\] for details of the precise meanings of the various redirection codes.
An `HTTPError` exception raised as a security consideration if the HTTPRedirectHandler is presented with a redirected URL which is not an HTTP, HTTPS or FTP URL.
`HTTPRedirectHandler.``redirect_request`(*req*, *fp*, *code*, *msg*, *hdrs*, *newurl*)Return a [`Request`](#urllib.request.Request "urllib.request.Request") or `None` in response to a redirect. This is called by the default implementations of the `http_error_30*()` methods when a redirection is received from the server. If a redirection should take place, return a new [`Request`](#urllib.request.Request "urllib.request.Request") to allow `http_error_30*()` to perform the redirect to *newurl*. Otherwise, raise [`HTTPError`](urllib.error.xhtml#urllib.error.HTTPError "urllib.error.HTTPError") if no other handler should try to handle this URL, or return `None` if you can't but another handler might.
注解
The default implementation of this method does not strictly follow [**RFC 2616**](https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2616.html) \[https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2616.html\], which says that 301 and 302 responses to `POST` requests must not be automatically redirected without confirmation by the user. In reality, browsers do allow automatic redirection of these responses, changing the POST to a `GET`, and the default implementation reproduces this behavior.
`HTTPRedirectHandler.``http_error_301`(*req*, *fp*, *code*, *msg*, *hdrs*)Redirect to the `Location:` or `URI:` URL. This method is called by the parent [`OpenerDirector`](#urllib.request.OpenerDirector "urllib.request.OpenerDirector") when getting an HTTP 'moved permanently' response.
`HTTPRedirectHandler.``http_error_302`(*req*, *fp*, *code*, *msg*, *hdrs*)The same as [`http_error_301()`](#urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_301 "urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_301"), but called for the 'found' response.
`HTTPRedirectHandler.``http_error_303`(*req*, *fp*, *code*, *msg*, *hdrs*)The same as [`http_error_301()`](#urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_301 "urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_301"), but called for the 'see other' response.
`HTTPRedirectHandler.``http_error_307`(*req*, *fp*, *code*, *msg*, *hdrs*)The same as [`http_error_301()`](#urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_301 "urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_301"), but called for the 'temporary redirect' response.
## HTTPCookieProcessor Objects
[`HTTPCookieProcessor`](#urllib.request.HTTPCookieProcessor "urllib.request.HTTPCookieProcessor") instances have one attribute:
`HTTPCookieProcessor.``cookiejar`The [`http.cookiejar.CookieJar`](http.cookiejar.xhtml#http.cookiejar.CookieJar "http.cookiejar.CookieJar") in which cookies are stored.
## ProxyHandler Objects
`ProxyHandler.<protocol>_open(request)`The [`ProxyHandler`](#urllib.request.ProxyHandler "urllib.request.ProxyHandler") will have a method `<protocol>_open()` for every *protocol* which has a proxy in the *proxies* dictionary given in the constructor. The method will modify requests to go through the proxy, by calling `request.set_proxy()`, and call the next handler in the chain to actually execute the protocol.
## HTTPPasswordMgr Objects
These methods are available on [`HTTPPasswordMgr`](#urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr "urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr") and [`HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm`](#urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm "urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm") objects.
`HTTPPasswordMgr.``add_password`(*realm*, *uri*, *user*, *passwd*)*uri* can be either a single URI, or a sequence of URIs. *realm*, *user* and *passwd* must be strings. This causes `(user, passwd)` to be used as authentication tokens when authentication for *realm* and a super-URI of any of the given URIs is given.
`HTTPPasswordMgr.``find_user_password`(*realm*, *authuri*)Get user/password for given realm and URI, if any. This method will return `(None, None)` if there is no matching user/password.
For [`HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm`](#urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm "urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm") objects, the realm `None` will be searched if the given *realm* has no matching user/password.
## HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth Objects
This password manager extends [`HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm`](#urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm "urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm") to support tracking URIs for which authentication credentials should always be sent.
`HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth.``add_password`(*realm*, *uri*, *user*, *passwd*, *is\_authenticated=False*)*realm*, *uri*, *user*, *passwd* are as for [`HTTPPasswordMgr.add_password()`](#urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr.add_password "urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr.add_password"). *is\_authenticated* sets the initial value of the `is_authenticated` flag for the given URI or list of URIs. If *is\_authenticated* is specified as `True`, *realm* is ignored.
`HTTPPasswordMgr.``find_user_password`(*realm*, *authuri*)Same as for [`HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm`](#urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm "urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm") objects
`HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth.``update_authenticated`(*self*, *uri*, *is\_authenticated=False*)Update the `is_authenticated` flag for the given *uri* or list of URIs.
`HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth.``is_authenticated`(*self*, *authuri*)Returns the current state of the `is_authenticated` flag for the given URI.
## AbstractBasicAuthHandler Objects
`AbstractBasicAuthHandler.``http_error_auth_reqed`(*authreq*, *host*, *req*, *headers*)Handle an authentication request by getting a user/password pair, and re-trying the request. *authreq* should be the name of the header where the information about the realm is included in the request, *host* specifies the URL and path to authenticate for, *req* should be the (failed) [`Request`](#urllib.request.Request "urllib.request.Request") object, and *headers* should be the error headers.
*host* is either an authority (e.g. `"python.org"`) or a URL containing an authority component (e.g. `"http://python.org/"`). In either case, the authority must not contain a userinfo component (so, `"python.org"` and `"python.org:80"` are fine, `"joe:password@python.org"` is not).
## HTTPBasicAuthHandler Objects
`HTTPBasicAuthHandler.``http_error_401`(*req*, *fp*, *code*, *msg*, *hdrs*)Retry the request with authentication information, if available.
## ProxyBasicAuthHandler Objects
`ProxyBasicAuthHandler.``http_error_407`(*req*, *fp*, *code*, *msg*, *hdrs*)Retry the request with authentication information, if available.
## AbstractDigestAuthHandler Objects
`AbstractDigestAuthHandler.``http_error_auth_reqed`(*authreq*, *host*, *req*, *headers*)*authreq* should be the name of the header where the information about the realm is included in the request, *host* should be the host to authenticate to, *req*should be the (failed) [`Request`](#urllib.request.Request "urllib.request.Request") object, and *headers* should be the error headers.
## HTTPDigestAuthHandler Objects
`HTTPDigestAuthHandler.``http_error_401`(*req*, *fp*, *code*, *msg*, *hdrs*)Retry the request with authentication information, if available.
## ProxyDigestAuthHandler Objects
`ProxyDigestAuthHandler.``http_error_407`(*req*, *fp*, *code*, *msg*, *hdrs*)Retry the request with authentication information, if available.
## HTTPHandler Objects
`HTTPHandler.``http_open`(*req*)Send an HTTP request, which can be either GET or POST, depending on `req.has_data()`.
## HTTPSHandler Objects
`HTTPSHandler.``https_open`(*req*)Send an HTTPS request, which can be either GET or POST, depending on `req.has_data()`.
## FileHandler Objects
`FileHandler.``file_open`(*req*)Open the file locally, if there is no host name, or the host name is `'localhost'`.
在 3.2 版更改: This method is applicable only for local hostnames. When a remote hostname is given, an [`URLError`](urllib.error.xhtml#urllib.error.URLError "urllib.error.URLError") is raised.
## DataHandler Objects
`DataHandler.``data_open`(*req*)Read a data URL. This kind of URL contains the content encoded in the URL itself. The data URL syntax is specified in [**RFC 2397**](https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2397.html) \[https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2397.html\]. This implementation ignores white spaces in base64 encoded data URLs so the URL may be wrapped in whatever source file it comes from. But even though some browsers don't mind about a missing padding at the end of a base64 encoded data URL, this implementation will raise an [`ValueError`](exceptions.xhtml#ValueError "ValueError") in that case.
## FTPHandler Objects
`FTPHandler.``ftp_open`(*req*)Open the FTP file indicated by *req*. The login is always done with empty username and password.
## CacheFTPHandler Objects
[`CacheFTPHandler`](#urllib.request.CacheFTPHandler "urllib.request.CacheFTPHandler") objects are [`FTPHandler`](#urllib.request.FTPHandler "urllib.request.FTPHandler") objects with the following additional methods:
`CacheFTPHandler.``setTimeout`(*t*)Set timeout of connections to *t* seconds.
`CacheFTPHandler.``setMaxConns`(*m*)Set maximum number of cached connections to *m*.
## UnknownHandler Objects
`UnknownHandler.``unknown_open`()Raise a [`URLError`](urllib.error.xhtml#urllib.error.URLError "urllib.error.URLError") exception.
## HTTPErrorProcessor Objects
`HTTPErrorProcessor.``http_response`(*request*, *response*)Process HTTP error responses.
For 200 error codes, the response object is returned immediately.
For non-200 error codes, this simply passes the job on to the `http_error_<type>()` handler methods, via [`OpenerDirector.error()`](#urllib.request.OpenerDirector.error "urllib.request.OpenerDirector.error"). Eventually, [`HTTPDefaultErrorHandler`](#urllib.request.HTTPDefaultErrorHandler "urllib.request.HTTPDefaultErrorHandler") will raise an [`HTTPError`](urllib.error.xhtml#urllib.error.HTTPError "urllib.error.HTTPError") if no other handler handles the error.
`HTTPErrorProcessor.``https_response`(*request*, *response*)Process HTTPS error responses.
The behavior is same as [`http_response()`](#urllib.request.HTTPErrorProcessor.http_response "urllib.request.HTTPErrorProcessor.http_response").
## 示例
In addition to the examples below, more examples are given in [如何使用urllib包獲取網絡資源](../howto/urllib2.xhtml#urllib-howto).
This example gets the python.org main page and displays the first 300 bytes of it.
```
>>> import urllib.request
>>> with urllib.request.urlopen('http://www.python.org/') as f:
... print(f.read(300))
...
b'\n\n\n<html
xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en">\n\n<head>\n
<meta http-equiv="content-type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" />\n
<title>Python Programming '
```
Note that urlopen returns a bytes object. This is because there is no way for urlopen to automatically determine the encoding of the byte stream it receives from the HTTP server. In general, a program will decode the returned bytes object to string once it determines or guesses the appropriate encoding.
The following W3C document, <https://www.w3.org/International/O-charset>, lists the various ways in which an (X)HTML or an XML document could have specified its encoding information.
As the python.org website uses *utf-8* encoding as specified in its meta tag, we will use the same for decoding the bytes object.
```
>>> with urllib.request.urlopen('http://www.python.org/') as f:
... print(f.read(100).decode('utf-8'))
...
>> import urllib.request
>>> f = urllib.request.urlopen('http://www.python.org/')
>>> print(f.read(100).decode('utf-8'))
>> import urllib.request
>>> req = urllib.request.Request(url='https://localhost/cgi-bin/test.cgi',
... data=b'This data is passed to stdin of the CGI')
>>> with urllib.request.urlopen(req) as f:
... print(f.read().decode('utf-8'))
...
Got Data: "This data is passed to stdin of the CGI"
```
The code for the sample CGI used in the above example is:
```
#!/usr/bin/env python
import sys
data = sys.stdin.read()
print('Content-type: text/plain\n\nGot Data: "%s"' % data)
```
Here is an example of doing a `PUT` request using [`Request`](#urllib.request.Request "urllib.request.Request"):
```
import urllib.request
DATA = b'some data'
req = urllib.request.Request(url='http://localhost:8080', data=DATA,method='PUT')
with urllib.request.urlopen(req) as f:
pass
print(f.status)
print(f.reason)
```
Use of Basic HTTP Authentication:
```
import urllib.request
# Create an OpenerDirector with support for Basic HTTP Authentication...
auth_handler = urllib.request.HTTPBasicAuthHandler()
auth_handler.add_password(realm='PDQ Application',
uri='https://mahler:8092/site-updates.py',
user='klem',
passwd='kadidd!ehopper')
opener = urllib.request.build_opener(auth_handler)
# ...and install it globally so it can be used with urlopen.
urllib.request.install_opener(opener)
urllib.request.urlopen('http://www.example.com/login.html')
```
[`build_opener()`](#urllib.request.build_opener "urllib.request.build_opener") provides many handlers by default, including a [`ProxyHandler`](#urllib.request.ProxyHandler "urllib.request.ProxyHandler"). By default, [`ProxyHandler`](#urllib.request.ProxyHandler "urllib.request.ProxyHandler") uses the environment variables named `<scheme>_proxy`, where `<scheme>` is the URL scheme involved. For example, the `http_proxy` environment variable is read to obtain the HTTP proxy's URL.
This example replaces the default [`ProxyHandler`](#urllib.request.ProxyHandler "urllib.request.ProxyHandler") with one that uses programmatically-supplied proxy URLs, and adds proxy authorization support with [`ProxyBasicAuthHandler`](#urllib.request.ProxyBasicAuthHandler "urllib.request.ProxyBasicAuthHandler").
```
proxy_handler = urllib.request.ProxyHandler({'http': 'http://www.example.com:3128/'})
proxy_auth_handler = urllib.request.ProxyBasicAuthHandler()
proxy_auth_handler.add_password('realm', 'host', 'username', 'password')
opener = urllib.request.build_opener(proxy_handler, proxy_auth_handler)
# This time, rather than install the OpenerDirector, we use it directly:
opener.open('http://www.example.com/login.html')
```
Adding HTTP headers:
Use the *headers* argument to the [`Request`](#urllib.request.Request "urllib.request.Request") constructor, or:
```
import urllib.request
req = urllib.request.Request('http://www.example.com/')
req.add_header('Referer', 'http://www.python.org/')
# Customize the default User-Agent header value:
req.add_header('User-Agent', 'urllib-example/0.1 (Contact: . . .)')
r = urllib.request.urlopen(req)
```
[`OpenerDirector`](#urllib.request.OpenerDirector "urllib.request.OpenerDirector") automatically adds a *User-Agent* header to every [`Request`](#urllib.request.Request "urllib.request.Request"). To change this:
```
import urllib.request
opener = urllib.request.build_opener()
opener.addheaders = [('User-agent', 'Mozilla/5.0')]
opener.open('http://www.example.com/')
```
Also, remember that a few standard headers (*Content-Length*, *Content-Type* and *Host*) are added when the [`Request`](#urllib.request.Request "urllib.request.Request") is passed to [`urlopen()`](#urllib.request.urlopen "urllib.request.urlopen") (or [`OpenerDirector.open()`](#urllib.request.OpenerDirector.open "urllib.request.OpenerDirector.open")).
Here is an example session that uses the `GET` method to retrieve a URL containing parameters:
```
>>> import urllib.request
>>> import urllib.parse
>>> params = urllib.parse.urlencode({'spam': 1, 'eggs': 2, 'bacon': 0})
>>> url = "http://www.musi-cal.com/cgi-bin/query?%s" % params
>>> with urllib.request.urlopen(url) as f:
... print(f.read().decode('utf-8'))
...
```
The following example uses the `POST` method instead. Note that params output from urlencode is encoded to bytes before it is sent to urlopen as data:
```
>>> import urllib.request
>>> import urllib.parse
>>> data = urllib.parse.urlencode({'spam': 1, 'eggs': 2, 'bacon': 0})
>>> data = data.encode('ascii')
>>> with urllib.request.urlopen("http://requestb.in/xrbl82xr", data) as f:
... print(f.read().decode('utf-8'))
...
```
The following example uses an explicitly specified HTTP proxy, overriding environment settings:
```
>>> import urllib.request
>>> proxies = {'http': 'http://proxy.example.com:8080/'}
>>> opener = urllib.request.FancyURLopener(proxies)
>>> with opener.open("http://www.python.org") as f:
... f.read().decode('utf-8')
...
```
The following example uses no proxies at all, overriding environment settings:
```
>>> import urllib.request
>>> opener = urllib.request.FancyURLopener({})
>>> with opener.open("http://www.python.org/") as f:
... f.read().decode('utf-8')
...
```
## Legacy interface
The following functions and classes are ported from the Python 2 module `urllib` (as opposed to `urllib2`). They might become deprecated at some point in the future.
`urllib.request.``urlretrieve`(*url*, *filename=None*, *reporthook=None*, *data=None*)Copy a network object denoted by a URL to a local file. If the URL points to a local file, the object will not be copied unless filename is supplied. Return a tuple `(filename, headers)` where *filename* is the local file name under which the object can be found, and *headers* is whatever the `info()` method of the object returned by [`urlopen()`](#urllib.request.urlopen "urllib.request.urlopen") returned (for a remote object). Exceptions are the same as for [`urlopen()`](#urllib.request.urlopen "urllib.request.urlopen").
The second argument, if present, specifies the file location to copy to (if absent, the location will be a tempfile with a generated name). The third argument, if present, is a callable that will be called once on establishment of the network connection and once after each block read thereafter. The callable will be passed three arguments; a count of blocks transferred so far, a block size in bytes, and the total size of the file. The third argument may be `-1` on older FTP servers which do not return a file size in response to a retrieval request.
The following example illustrates the most common usage scenario:
```
>>> import urllib.request
>>> local_filename, headers = urllib.request.urlretrieve('http://python.org/')
>>> html = open(local_filename)
>>> html.close()
```
If the *url* uses the `http:` scheme identifier, the optional *data*argument may be given to specify a `POST` request (normally the request type is `GET`). The *data* argument must be a bytes object in standard *application/x-www-form-urlencoded* format; see the [`urllib.parse.urlencode()`](urllib.parse.xhtml#urllib.parse.urlencode "urllib.parse.urlencode") function.
[`urlretrieve()`](#urllib.request.urlretrieve "urllib.request.urlretrieve") will raise `ContentTooShortError` when it detects that the amount of data available was less than the expected amount (which is the size reported by a *Content-Length* header). This can occur, for example, when the download is interrupted.
The *Content-Length* is treated as a lower bound: if there's more data to read, urlretrieve reads more data, but if less data is available, it raises the exception.
You can still retrieve the downloaded data in this case, it is stored in the `content` attribute of the exception instance.
If no *Content-Length* header was supplied, urlretrieve can not check the size of the data it has downloaded, and just returns it. In this case you just have to assume that the download was successful.
`urllib.request.``urlcleanup`()Cleans up temporary files that may have been left behind by previous calls to [`urlretrieve()`](#urllib.request.urlretrieve "urllib.request.urlretrieve").
*class* `urllib.request.``URLopener`(*proxies=None*, *\*\*x509*)3\.3 版后已移除.
Base class for opening and reading URLs. Unless you need to support opening objects using schemes other than `http:`, `ftp:`, or `file:`, you probably want to use [`FancyURLopener`](#urllib.request.FancyURLopener "urllib.request.FancyURLopener").
By default, the [`URLopener`](#urllib.request.URLopener "urllib.request.URLopener") class sends a *User-Agent* header of `urllib/VVV`, where *VVV* is the [`urllib`](urllib.xhtml#module-urllib "urllib") version number. Applications can define their own *User-Agent* header by subclassing [`URLopener`](#urllib.request.URLopener "urllib.request.URLopener") or [`FancyURLopener`](#urllib.request.FancyURLopener "urllib.request.FancyURLopener") and setting the class attribute [`version`](#urllib.request.URLopener.version "urllib.request.URLopener.version") to an appropriate string value in the subclass definition.
The optional *proxies* parameter should be a dictionary mapping scheme names to proxy URLs, where an empty dictionary turns proxies off completely. Its default value is `None`, in which case environmental proxy settings will be used if present, as discussed in the definition of [`urlopen()`](#urllib.request.urlopen "urllib.request.urlopen"), above.
Additional keyword parameters, collected in *x509*, may be used for authentication of the client when using the `https:` scheme. The keywords *key\_file* and *cert\_file* are supported to provide an SSL key and certificate; both are needed to support client authentication.
[`URLopener`](#urllib.request.URLopener "urllib.request.URLopener") objects will raise an [`OSError`](exceptions.xhtml#OSError "OSError") exception if the server returns an error code.
`open`(*fullurl*, *data=None*)Open *fullurl* using the appropriate protocol. This method sets up cache and proxy information, then calls the appropriate open method with its input arguments. If the scheme is not recognized, [`open_unknown()`](#urllib.request.URLopener.open_unknown "urllib.request.URLopener.open_unknown") is called. The *data* argument has the same meaning as the *data* argument of [`urlopen()`](#urllib.request.urlopen "urllib.request.urlopen").
This method always quotes *fullurl* using [`quote()`](urllib.parse.xhtml#urllib.parse.quote "urllib.parse.quote").
`open_unknown`(*fullurl*, *data=None*)Overridable interface to open unknown URL types.
`retrieve`(*url*, *filename=None*, *reporthook=None*, *data=None*)Retrieves the contents of *url* and places it in *filename*. The return value is a tuple consisting of a local filename and either an [`email.message.Message`](email.compat32-message.xhtml#email.message.Message "email.message.Message") object containing the response headers (for remote URLs) or `None` (for local URLs). The caller must then open and read the contents of *filename*. If *filename* is not given and the URL refers to a local file, the input filename is returned. If the URL is non-local and *filename* is not given, the filename is the output of [`tempfile.mktemp()`](tempfile.xhtml#tempfile.mktemp "tempfile.mktemp")with a suffix that matches the suffix of the last path component of the input URL. If *reporthook* is given, it must be a function accepting three numeric parameters: A chunk number, the maximum size chunks are read in and the total size of the download (-1 if unknown). It will be called once at the start and after each chunk of data is read from the network. *reporthook* is ignored for local URLs.
If the *url* uses the `http:` scheme identifier, the optional *data*argument may be given to specify a `POST` request (normally the request type is `GET`). The *data* argument must in standard *application/x-www-form-urlencoded* format; see the [`urllib.parse.urlencode()`](urllib.parse.xhtml#urllib.parse.urlencode "urllib.parse.urlencode") function.
`version`Variable that specifies the user agent of the opener object. To get [`urllib`](urllib.xhtml#module-urllib "urllib") to tell servers that it is a particular user agent, set this in a subclass as a class variable or in the constructor before calling the base constructor.
*class* `urllib.request.``FancyURLopener`(*...*)3\.3 版后已移除.
[`FancyURLopener`](#urllib.request.FancyURLopener "urllib.request.FancyURLopener") subclasses [`URLopener`](#urllib.request.URLopener "urllib.request.URLopener") providing default handling for the following HTTP response codes: 301, 302, 303, 307 and 401. For the 30x response codes listed above, the *Location* header is used to fetch the actual URL. For 401 response codes (authentication required), basic HTTP authentication is performed. For the 30x response codes, recursion is bounded by the value of the *maxtries* attribute, which defaults to 10.
For all other response codes, the method `http_error_default()` is called which you can override in subclasses to handle the error appropriately.
注解
According to the letter of [**RFC 2616**](https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2616.html) \[https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2616.html\], 301 and 302 responses to POST requests must not be automatically redirected without confirmation by the user. In reality, browsers do allow automatic redirection of these responses, changing the POST to a GET, and [`urllib`](urllib.xhtml#module-urllib "urllib") reproduces this behaviour.
The parameters to the constructor are the same as those for [`URLopener`](#urllib.request.URLopener "urllib.request.URLopener").
注解
When performing basic authentication, a [`FancyURLopener`](#urllib.request.FancyURLopener "urllib.request.FancyURLopener") instance calls its [`prompt_user_passwd()`](#urllib.request.FancyURLopener.prompt_user_passwd "urllib.request.FancyURLopener.prompt_user_passwd") method. The default implementation asks the users for the required information on the controlling terminal. A subclass may override this method to support more appropriate behavior if needed.
The [`FancyURLopener`](#urllib.request.FancyURLopener "urllib.request.FancyURLopener") class offers one additional method that should be overloaded to provide the appropriate behavior:
`prompt_user_passwd`(*host*, *realm*)Return information needed to authenticate the user at the given host in the specified security realm. The return value should be a tuple,
```
(user,
password)
```
, which can be used for basic authentication.
The implementation prompts for this information on the terminal; an application should override this method to use an appropriate interaction model in the local environment.
## [`urllib.request`](#module-urllib.request "urllib.request: Extensible library for opening URLs.") Restrictions
>
- Currently, only the following protocols are supported: HTTP (versions 0.9 and 1.0), FTP, local files, and data URLs.
在 3.4 版更改: Added support for data URLs.
- The caching feature of [`urlretrieve()`](#urllib.request.urlretrieve "urllib.request.urlretrieve") has been disabled until someone finds the time to hack proper processing of Expiration time headers.
- There should be a function to query whether a particular URL is in the cache.
- For backward compatibility, if a URL appears to point to a local file but the file can't be opened, the URL is re-interpreted using the FTP protocol. This can sometimes cause confusing error messages.
- The [`urlopen()`](#urllib.request.urlopen "urllib.request.urlopen") and [`urlretrieve()`](#urllib.request.urlretrieve "urllib.request.urlretrieve") functions can cause arbitrarily long delays while waiting for a network connection to be set up. This means that it is difficult to build an interactive Web client using these functions without using threads.
- The data returned by [`urlopen()`](#urllib.request.urlopen "urllib.request.urlopen") or [`urlretrieve()`](#urllib.request.urlretrieve "urllib.request.urlretrieve") is the raw data returned by the server. This may be binary data (such as an image), plain text or (for example) HTML. The HTTP protocol provides type information in the reply header, which can be inspected by looking at the *Content-Type*header. If the returned data is HTML, you can use the module [`html.parser`](html.parser.xhtml#module-html.parser "html.parser: A simple parser that can handle HTML and XHTML.") to parse it.
- The code handling the FTP protocol cannot differentiate between a file and a directory. This can lead to unexpected behavior when attempting to read a URL that points to a file that is not accessible. If the URL ends in a `/`, it is assumed to refer to a directory and will be handled accordingly. But if an attempt to read a file leads to a 550 error (meaning the URL cannot be found or is not accessible, often for permission reasons), then the path is treated as a directory in order to handle the case when a directory is specified by a URL but the trailing `/` has been left off. This can cause misleading results when you try to fetch a file whose read permissions make it inaccessible; the FTP code will try to read it, fail with a 550 error, and then perform a directory listing for the unreadable file. If fine-grained control is needed, consider using the [`ftplib`](ftplib.xhtml#module-ftplib "ftplib: FTP protocol client (requires sockets).") module, subclassing [`FancyURLopener`](#urllib.request.FancyURLopener "urllib.request.FancyURLopener"), or changing *\_urlopener* to meet your needs.
# [`urllib.response`](#module-urllib.response "urllib.response: Response classes used by urllib.") --- Response classes used by urllib
The [`urllib.response`](#module-urllib.response "urllib.response: Response classes used by urllib.") module defines functions and classes which define a minimal file like interface, including `read()` and `readline()`. The typical response object is an addinfourl instance, which defines an `info()`method and that returns headers and a `geturl()` method that returns the url. Functions defined by this module are used internally by the [`urllib.request`](#module-urllib.request "urllib.request: Extensible library for opening URLs.") module.
### 導航
- [索引](../genindex.xhtml "總目錄")
- [模塊](../py-modindex.xhtml "Python 模塊索引") |
- [下一頁](urllib.parse.xhtml "urllib.parse --- Parse URLs into components") |
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- [互聯網協議和支持](internet.xhtml) ?
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- Python文檔內容
- Python 有什么新變化？
- Python 3.7 有什么新變化
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- PEP 405: Virtual Environments
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- Acknowledgements
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- PEP 227: Nested Scopes
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- PEP 207: Rich Comparisons
- PEP 230: Warning Framework
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- PEP 217: Interactive Display Hook
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- New Development Process
- Unicode
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- Augmented Assignment
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- Garbage Collection of Cycles
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- Porting to 2.0
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- Python 下一版
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- Python 教程
- 課前甜點
- 使用 Python 解釋器
- 調用解釋器
- 解釋器的運行環境
- Python 的非正式介紹
- Python 作為計算器使用
- 走向編程的第一步
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- if 語句
- for 語句
- range() 函數
- break 和 continue 語句，以及循環中的 else 子句
- pass 語句
- 定義函數
- 函數定義的更多形式
- 小插曲：編碼風格
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- 列表的更多特性
- del 語句
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- 包
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- 標準庫簡介 —— 第二部分
- 格式化輸出
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- 交互式編輯和編輯歷史
- Tab 補全和編輯歷史
- 默認交互式解釋器的替代品
- 浮點算術：爭議和限制
- 表示性錯誤
- 附錄
- 交互模式
- 安裝和使用 Python
- 命令行與環境
- 命令行
- 環境變量
- 在Unix平臺中使用Python
- 獲取最新版本的Python
- 構建Python
- 與Python相關的路徑和文件
- 雜項
- 編輯器和集成開發環境
- 在Windows上使用 Python
- 完整安裝程序
- Microsoft Store包
- nuget.org 安裝包
- 可嵌入的包
- 替代捆綁包
- 配置Python
- 適用于Windows的Python啟動器
- 查找模塊
- 附加模塊
- 在Windows上編譯Python
- 其他平臺
- 在蘋果系統上使用 Python
- 獲取和安裝 MacPython
- IDE
- 安裝額外的 Python 包
- Mac 上的圖形界面編程
- 在 Mac 上分發 Python 應用程序
- 其他資源
- Python 語言參考
- 概述
- 其他實現
- 標注
- 詞法分析
- 行結構
- 其他形符
- 標識符和關鍵字
- 字面值
- 運算符
- 分隔符
- 數據模型
- 對象、值與類型
- 標準類型層級結構
- 特殊方法名稱
- 協程
- 執行模型
- 程序的結構
- 命名與綁定
- 異常
- 導入系統
- importlib
- 包
- 搜索
- 加載
- 基于路徑的查找器
- 替換標準導入系統
- Package Relative Imports
- 有關 main 的特殊事項
- 開放問題項
- 參考文獻
- 表達式
- 算術轉換
- 原子
- 原型
- await 表達式
- 冪運算符
- 一元算術和位運算
- 二元算術運算符
- 移位運算
- 二元位運算
- 比較運算
- 布爾運算
- 條件表達式
- lambda 表達式
- 表達式列表
- 求值順序
- 運算符優先級
- 簡單語句
- 表達式語句
- 賦值語句
- assert 語句
- pass 語句
- del 語句
- return 語句
- yield 語句
- raise 語句
- break 語句
- continue 語句
- import 語句
- global 語句
- nonlocal 語句
- 復合語句
- if 語句
- while 語句
- for 語句
- try 語句
- with 語句
- 函數定義
- 類定義
- 協程
- 最高層級組件
- 完整的 Python 程序
- 文件輸入
- 交互式輸入
- 表達式輸入
- 完整的語法規范
- Python 標準庫
- 概述
- 可用性注釋
- 內置函數
- 內置常量
- 由 site 模塊添加的常量
- 內置類型
- 邏輯值檢測
- 布爾運算 — and, or, not
- 比較
- 數字類型 — int, float, complex
- 迭代器類型
- 序列類型 — list, tuple, range
- 文本序列類型 — str
- 二進制序列類型 — bytes, bytearray, memoryview
- 集合類型 — set, frozenset
- 映射類型 — dict
- 上下文管理器類型
- 其他內置類型
- 特殊屬性
- 內置異常
- 基類
- 具體異常
- 警告
- 異常層次結構
- 文本處理服務
- string — 常見的字符串操作
- re — 正則表達式操作
- 模塊 difflib 是一個計算差異的助手
- textwrap — Text wrapping and filling
- unicodedata — Unicode 數據庫
- stringprep — Internet String Preparation
- readline — GNU readline interface
- rlcompleter — GNU readline的完成函數
- 二進制數據服務
- struct — Interpret bytes as packed binary data
- codecs — Codec registry and base classes
- 數據類型
- datetime — 基礎日期/時間數據類型
- calendar — General calendar-related functions
- collections — 容器數據類型
- collections.abc — 容器的抽象基類
- heapq — 堆隊列算法
- bisect — Array bisection algorithm
- array — Efficient arrays of numeric values
- weakref — 弱引用
- types — Dynamic type creation and names for built-in types
- copy — 淺層 (shallow) 和深層 (deep) 復制操作
- pprint — 數據美化輸出
- reprlib — Alternate repr() implementation
- enum — Support for enumerations
- 數字和數學模塊
- numbers — 數字的抽象基類
- math — 數學函數
- cmath — Mathematical functions for complex numbers
- decimal — 十進制定點和浮點運算
- fractions — 分數
- random — 生成偽隨機數
- statistics — Mathematical statistics functions
- 函數式編程模塊
- itertools — 為高效循環而創建迭代器的函數
- functools — 高階函數和可調用對象上的操作
- operator — 標準運算符替代函數
- 文件和目錄訪問
- pathlib — 面向對象的文件系統路徑
- os.path — 常見路徑操作
- fileinput — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams
- stat — Interpreting stat() results
- filecmp — File and Directory Comparisons
- tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories
- glob — Unix style pathname pattern expansion
- fnmatch — Unix filename pattern matching
- linecache — Random access to text lines
- shutil — High-level file operations
- macpath — Mac OS 9 路徑操作函數
- 數據持久化
- pickle —— Python 對象序列化
- copyreg — Register pickle support functions
- shelve — Python object persistence
- marshal — Internal Python object serialization
- dbm — Interfaces to Unix “databases”
- sqlite3 — SQLite 數據庫 DB-API 2.0 接口模塊
- 數據壓縮和存檔
- zlib — 與 gzip 兼容的壓縮
- gzip — 對 gzip 格式的支持
- bz2 — 對 bzip2 壓縮算法的支持
- lzma — 用 LZMA 算法壓縮
- zipfile — 在 ZIP 歸檔中工作
- tarfile — Read and write tar archive files
- 文件格式
- csv — CSV 文件讀寫
- configparser — Configuration file parser
- netrc — netrc file processing
- xdrlib — Encode and decode XDR data
- plistlib — Generate and parse Mac OS X .plist files
- 加密服務
- hashlib — 安全哈希與消息摘要
- hmac — 基于密鑰的消息驗證
- secrets — Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets
- 通用操作系統服務
- os — 操作系統接口模塊
- io — 處理流的核心工具
- time — 時間的訪問和轉換
- argparse — 命令行選項、參數和子命令解析器
- getopt — C-style parser for command line options
- 模塊 logging — Python 的日志記錄工具
- logging.config — 日志記錄配置
- logging.handlers — Logging handlers
- getpass — 便攜式密碼輸入工具
- curses — 終端字符單元顯示的處理
- curses.textpad — Text input widget for curses programs
- curses.ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters
- curses.panel — A panel stack extension for curses
- platform — Access to underlying platform's identifying data
- errno — Standard errno system symbols
- ctypes — Python 的外部函數庫
- 并發執行
- threading — 基于線程的并行
- multiprocessing — 基于進程的并行
- concurrent 包
- concurrent.futures — 啟動并行任務
- subprocess — 子進程管理
- sched — 事件調度器
- queue — 一個同步的隊列類
- _thread — 底層多線程 API
- _dummy_thread — _thread 的替代模塊
- dummy_threading — 可直接替代 threading 模塊。
- contextvars — Context Variables
- Context Variables
- Manual Context Management
- asyncio support
- 網絡和進程間通信
- asyncio — 異步 I/O
- socket — 底層網絡接口
- ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects
- select — Waiting for I/O completion
- selectors — 高級 I/O 復用庫
- asyncore — 異步socket處理器
- asynchat — 異步 socket 指令/響應 處理器
- signal — Set handlers for asynchronous events
- mmap — Memory-mapped file support
- 互聯網數據處理
- email — 電子郵件與 MIME 處理包
- json — JSON 編碼和解碼器
- mailcap — Mailcap file handling
- mailbox — Manipulate mailboxes in various formats
- mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types
- base64 — Base16, Base32, Base64, Base85 數據編碼
- binhex — 對binhex4文件進行編碼和解碼
- binascii — 二進制和 ASCII 碼互轉
- quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data
- uu — Encode and decode uuencode files
- 結構化標記處理工具
- html — 超文本標記語言支持
- html.parser — 簡單的 HTML 和 XHTML 解析器
- html.entities — HTML 一般實體的定義
- XML處理模塊
- xml.etree.ElementTree — The ElementTree XML API
- xml.dom — The Document Object Model API
- xml.dom.minidom — Minimal DOM implementation
- xml.dom.pulldom — Support for building partial DOM trees
- xml.sax — Support for SAX2 parsers
- xml.sax.handler — Base classes for SAX handlers
- xml.sax.saxutils — SAX Utilities
- xml.sax.xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers
- xml.parsers.expat — Fast XML parsing using Expat
- 互聯網協議和支持
- webbrowser — 方便的Web瀏覽器控制器
- cgi — Common Gateway Interface support
- cgitb — Traceback manager for CGI scripts
- wsgiref — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation
- urllib — URL 處理模塊
- urllib.request — 用于打開 URL 的可擴展庫
- urllib.response — Response classes used by urllib
- urllib.parse — Parse URLs into components
- urllib.error — Exception classes raised by urllib.request
- urllib.robotparser — Parser for robots.txt
- http — HTTP 模塊
- http.client — HTTP協議客戶端
- ftplib — FTP protocol client
- poplib — POP3 protocol client
- imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client
- nntplib — NNTP protocol client
- smtplib —SMTP協議客戶端
- smtpd — SMTP Server
- telnetlib — Telnet client
- uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122
- socketserver — A framework for network servers
- http.server — HTTP 服務器
- http.cookies — HTTP state management
- http.cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients
- xmlrpc — XMLRPC 服務端與客戶端模塊
- xmlrpc.client — XML-RPC client access
- xmlrpc.server — Basic XML-RPC servers
- ipaddress — IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library
- 多媒體服務
- audioop — Manipulate raw audio data
- aifc — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files
- sunau — 讀寫 Sun AU 文件
- wave — 讀寫WAV格式文件
- chunk — Read IFF chunked data
- colorsys — Conversions between color systems
- imghdr — 推測圖像類型
- sndhdr — 推測聲音文件的類型
- ossaudiodev — Access to OSS-compatible audio devices
- 國際化
- gettext — 多語種國際化服務
- locale — 國際化服務
- 程序框架
- turtle — 海龜繪圖
- cmd — 支持面向行的命令解釋器
- shlex — Simple lexical analysis
- Tk圖形用戶界面(GUI)
- tkinter — Tcl/Tk的Python接口
- tkinter.ttk — Tk themed widgets
- tkinter.tix — Extension widgets for Tk
- tkinter.scrolledtext — 滾動文字控件
- IDLE
- 其他圖形用戶界面（GUI）包
- 開發工具
- typing — 類型標注支持
- pydoc — Documentation generator and online help system
- doctest — Test interactive Python examples
- unittest — 單元測試框架
- unittest.mock — mock object library
- unittest.mock 上手指南
- 2to3 - 自動將 Python 2 代碼轉為 Python 3 代碼
- test — Regression tests package for Python
- test.support — Utilities for the Python test suite
- test.support.script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests
- 調試和分析
- bdb — Debugger framework
- faulthandler — Dump the Python traceback
- pdb — The Python Debugger
- The Python Profilers
- timeit — 測量小代碼片段的執行時間
- trace — Trace or track Python statement execution
- tracemalloc — Trace memory allocations
- 軟件打包和分發
- distutils — 構建和安裝 Python 模塊
- ensurepip — Bootstrapping the pip installer
- venv — 創建虛擬環境
- zipapp — Manage executable Python zip archives
- Python運行時服務
- sys — 系統相關的參數和函數
- sysconfig — Provide access to Python's configuration information
- builtins — 內建對象
- main — 頂層腳本環境
- warnings — Warning control
- dataclasses — 數據類
- contextlib — Utilities for with-statement contexts
- abc — 抽象基類
- atexit — 退出處理器
- traceback — Print or retrieve a stack traceback
- future — Future 語句定義
- gc — 垃圾回收器接口
- inspect — 檢查對象
- site — Site-specific configuration hook
- 自定義 Python 解釋器
- code — Interpreter base classes
- codeop — Compile Python code
- 導入模塊
- zipimport — Import modules from Zip archives
- pkgutil — Package extension utility
- modulefinder — 查找腳本使用的模塊
- runpy — Locating and executing Python modules
- importlib — The implementation of import
- Python 語言服務
- parser — Access Python parse trees
- ast — 抽象語法樹
- symtable — Access to the compiler's symbol tables
- symbol — 與 Python 解析樹一起使用的常量
- token — 與Python解析樹一起使用的常量
- keyword — 檢驗Python關鍵字
- tokenize — Tokenizer for Python source
- tabnanny — 模糊縮進檢測
- pyclbr — Python class browser support
- py_compile — Compile Python source files
- compileall — Byte-compile Python libraries
- dis — Python 字節碼反匯編器
- pickletools — Tools for pickle developers
- 雜項服務
- formatter — Generic output formatting
- Windows系統相關模塊
- msilib — Read and write Microsoft Installer files
- msvcrt — Useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime
- winreg — Windows 注冊表訪問
- winsound — Sound-playing interface for Windows
- Unix 專有服務
- posix — The most common POSIX system calls
- pwd — 用戶密碼數據庫
- spwd — The shadow password database
- grp — The group database
- crypt — Function to check Unix passwords
- termios — POSIX style tty control
- tty — 終端控制功能
- pty — Pseudo-terminal utilities
- fcntl — The fcntl and ioctl system calls
- pipes — Interface to shell pipelines
- resource — Resource usage information
- nis — Interface to Sun's NIS (Yellow Pages)
- Unix syslog 庫例程
- 被取代的模塊
- optparse — Parser for command line options
- imp — Access the import internals
- 未創建文檔的模塊
- 平臺特定模塊
- 擴展和嵌入 Python 解釋器
- 推薦的第三方工具
- 不使用第三方工具創建擴展
- 使用 C 或 C++ 擴展 Python
- 自定義擴展類型：教程
- 定義擴展類型：已分類主題
- 構建C/C++擴展
- 在Windows平臺編譯C和C++擴展
- 在更大的應用程序中嵌入 CPython 運行時
- Embedding Python in Another Application
- Python/C API 參考手冊
- 概述
- 代碼標準
- 包含文件
- 有用的宏
- 對象、類型和引用計數
- 異常
- 嵌入Python
- 調試構建
- 穩定的應用程序二進制接口
- The Very High Level Layer
- Reference Counting
- 異常處理
- Printing and clearing
- 拋出異常
- Issuing warnings
- Querying the error indicator
- Signal Handling
- Exception Classes
- Exception Objects
- Unicode Exception Objects
- Recursion Control
- 標準異常
- 標準警告類別
- 工具
- 操作系統實用程序
- 系統功能
- 過程控制
- 導入模塊
- Data marshalling support
- 語句解釋及變量編譯
- 字符串轉換與格式化
- 反射
- 編解碼器注冊與支持功能
- 抽象對象層
- Object Protocol
- 數字協議
- Sequence Protocol
- Mapping Protocol
- 迭代器協議
- 緩沖協議
- Old Buffer Protocol
- 具體的對象層
- 基本對象
- 數值對象
- 序列對象
- 容器對象
- 函數對象
- 其他對象
- Initialization, Finalization, and Threads
- 在Python初始化之前
- 全局配置變量
- Initializing and finalizing the interpreter
- Process-wide parameters
- Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock
- Sub-interpreter support
- Asynchronous Notifications
- Profiling and Tracing
- Advanced Debugger Support
- Thread Local Storage Support
- 內存管理
- 概述
- 原始內存接口
- Memory Interface
- 對象分配器
- 默認內存分配器
- Customize Memory Allocators
- The pymalloc allocator
- tracemalloc C API
- 示例
- 對象實現支持
- 在堆中分配對象
- Common Object Structures
- Type 對象
- Number Object Structures
- Mapping Object Structures
- Sequence Object Structures
- Buffer Object Structures
- Async Object Structures
- 使對象類型支持循環垃圾回收
- API 和 ABI 版本管理
- 分發 Python 模塊
- 關鍵術語
- 開源許可與協作
- 安裝工具
- 閱讀指南
- 我該如何...？
- ...為我的項目選擇一個名字？
- ...創建和分發二進制擴展？
- 安裝 Python 模塊
- 關鍵術語
- 基本使用
- 我應如何 ...？
- ... 在 Python 3.4 之前的 Python 版本中安裝 pip ？
- ... 只為當前用戶安裝軟件包？
- ... 安裝科學計算類 Python 軟件包？
- ... 使用并行安裝的多個 Python 版本？
- 常見的安裝問題
- 在 Linux 的系統 Python 版本上安裝
- 未安裝 pip
- 安裝二進制編譯擴展
- Python 常用指引
- 將 Python 2 代碼遷移到 Python 3
- 簡要說明
- 詳情
- 將擴展模塊移植到 Python 3
- 條件編譯
- 對象API的更改
- 模塊初始化和狀態
- CObject 替換為 Capsule
- 其他選項
- Curses Programming with Python
- What is curses?
- Starting and ending a curses application
- Windows and Pads
- Displaying Text
- User Input
- For More Information
- 實現描述器
- 摘要
- 定義和簡介
- 描述器協議
- 發起調用描述符
- 描述符示例
- Properties
- 函數和方法
- Static Methods and Class Methods
- 函數式編程指引
- 概述
- 迭代器
- 生成器表達式和列表推導式
- 生成器
- 內置函數
- itertools 模塊
- The functools module
- Small functions and the lambda expression
- Revision History and Acknowledgements
- 引用文獻
- 日志 HOWTO
- 日志基礎教程
- 進階日志教程
- 日志級別
- 有用的處理程序
- 記錄日志中引發的異常
- 使用任意對象作為消息
- 優化
- 日志操作手冊
- 在多個模塊中使用日志
- 在多線程中使用日志
- 使用多個日志處理器和多種格式化
- 在多個地方記錄日志
- 日志服務器配置示例
- 處理日志處理器的阻塞
- Sending and receiving logging events across a network
- Adding contextual information to your logging output
- Logging to a single file from multiple processes
- Using file rotation
- Use of alternative formatting styles
- Customizing LogRecord
- Subclassing QueueHandler - a ZeroMQ example
- Subclassing QueueListener - a ZeroMQ example
- An example dictionary-based configuration
- Using a rotator and namer to customize log rotation processing
- A more elaborate multiprocessing example
- Inserting a BOM into messages sent to a SysLogHandler
- Implementing structured logging
- Customizing handlers with dictConfig()
- Using particular formatting styles throughout your application
- Configuring filters with dictConfig()
- Customized exception formatting
- Speaking logging messages
- Buffering logging messages and outputting them conditionally
- Formatting times using UTC (GMT) via configuration
- Using a context manager for selective logging
- 正則表達式HOWTO
- 概述
- 簡單模式
- 使用正則表達式
- 更多模式能力
- 修改字符串
- 常見問題
- 反饋
- 套接字編程指南
- 套接字
- 創建套接字
- 使用一個套接字
- 斷開連接
- 非阻塞的套接字
- 排序指南
- 基本排序
- 關鍵函數
- Operator 模塊函數
- 升序和降序
- 排序穩定性和排序復雜度
- 使用裝飾-排序-去裝飾的舊方法
- 使用 cmp 參數的舊方法
- 其它
- Unicode 指南
- Unicode 概述
- Python's Unicode Support
- Reading and Writing Unicode Data
- Acknowledgements
- 如何使用urllib包獲取網絡資源
- 概述
- Fetching URLs
- 處理異常
- info and geturl
- Openers and Handlers
- Basic Authentication
- Proxies
- Sockets and Layers
- 腳注
- Argparse 教程
- 概念
- 基礎
- 位置參數介紹
- Introducing Optional arguments
- Combining Positional and Optional arguments
- Getting a little more advanced
- Conclusion
- ipaddress模塊介紹
- 創建 Address/Network/Interface 對象
- 審查 Address/Network/Interface 對象
- Network 作為 Address 列表
- 比較
- 將IP地址與其他模塊一起使用
- 實例創建失敗時獲取更多詳細信息
- Argument Clinic How-To
- The Goals Of Argument Clinic
- Basic Concepts And Usage
- Converting Your First Function
- Advanced Topics
- 使用 DTrace 和 SystemTap 檢測CPython
- Enabling the static markers
- Static DTrace probes
- Static SystemTap markers
- Available static markers
- SystemTap Tapsets
- 示例
- Python 常見問題
- Python常見問題
- 一般信息
- 現實世界中的 Python
- 編程常見問題
- 一般問題
- 核心語言
- 數字和字符串
- 性能
- 序列（元組/列表）
- 對象
- 模塊
- 設計和歷史常見問題
- 為什么Python使用縮進來分組語句？
- 為什么簡單的算術運算得到奇怪的結果？
- 為什么浮點計算不準確？
- 為什么Python字符串是不可變的？
- 為什么必須在方法定義和調用中顯式使用“self”？
- 為什么不能在表達式中賦值？
- 為什么Python對某些功能（例如list.index()）使用方法來實現，而其他功能（例如len(List)）使用函數實現？
- 為什么 join()是一個字符串方法而不是列表或元組方法？
- 異常有多快？
- 為什么Python中沒有switch或case語句？
- 難道不能在解釋器中模擬線程，而非得依賴特定于操作系統的線程實現嗎？
- 為什么lambda表達式不能包含語句？
- 可以將Python編譯為機器代碼，C或其他語言嗎？
- Python如何管理內存？
- 為什么CPython不使用更傳統的垃圾回收方案？
- CPython退出時為什么不釋放所有內存？
- 為什么有單獨的元組和列表數據類型？
- 列表是如何在CPython中實現的？
- 字典是如何在CPython中實現的？
- 為什么字典key必須是不可變的？
- 為什么 list.sort() 沒有返回排序列表？
- 如何在Python中指定和實施接口規范？
- 為什么沒有goto？
- 為什么原始字符串（r-strings）不能以反斜杠結尾？
- 為什么Python沒有屬性賦值的“with”語句？
- 為什么 if/while/def/class語句需要冒號？
- 為什么Python在列表和元組的末尾允許使用逗號？
- 代碼庫和插件 FAQ
- 通用的代碼庫問題
- 通用任務
- 線程相關
- 輸入輸出
- 網絡 / Internet 編程
- 數據庫
- 數學和數字
- 擴展/嵌入常見問題
- 可以使用C語言中創建自己的函數嗎？
- 可以使用C++語言中創建自己的函數嗎？
- C很難寫，有沒有其他選擇？
- 如何從C執行任意Python語句？
- 如何從C中評估任意Python表達式？
- 如何從Python對象中提取C的值？
- 如何使用Py_BuildValue()創建任意長度的元組？
- 如何從C調用對象的方法？
- 如何捕獲PyErr_Print()（或打印到stdout / stderr的任何內容）的輸出？
- 如何從C訪問用Python編寫的模塊？
- 如何從Python接口到C ++對象？
- 我使用Setup文件添加了一個模塊，為什么make失敗了？
- 如何調試擴展？
- 我想在Linux系統上編譯一個Python模塊，但是缺少一些文件。為什么?
- 如何區分“輸入不完整”和“輸入無效”？
- 如何找到未定義的g++符號__builtin_new或__pure_virtual？
- 能否創建一個對象類，其中部分方法在C中實現，而其他方法在Python中實現（例如通過繼承）？
- Python在Windows上的常見問題
- 我怎樣在Windows下運行一個Python程序？
- 我怎么讓 Python 腳本可執行？
- 為什么有時候 Python 程序會啟動緩慢？
- 我怎樣使用Python腳本制作可執行文件？
- *.pyd 文件和DLL文件相同嗎？
- 我怎樣將Python嵌入一個Windows程序？
- 如何讓編輯器不要在我的 Python 源代碼中插入 tab ？
- 如何在不阻塞的情況下檢查按鍵？
- 圖形用戶界面（GUI）常見問題
- 圖形界面常見問題
- Python 是否有平臺無關的圖形界面工具包？
- 有哪些Python的GUI工具是某個平臺專用的？
- 有關Tkinter的問題
- “為什么我的電腦上安裝了 Python ？”
- 什么是Python？
- 為什么我的電腦上安裝了 Python ？
- 我能刪除 Python 嗎？
- 術語對照表
- 文檔說明
- Python 文檔貢獻者
- 解決 Bug
- 文檔錯誤
- 使用 Python 的錯誤追蹤系統
- 開始為 Python 貢獻您的知識
- 版權
- 歷史和許可證
- 軟件歷史
- 訪問Python或以其他方式使用Python的條款和條件
- Python 3.7.3 的 PSF 許可協議
- Python 2.0 的 BeOpen.com 許可協議
- Python 1.6.1 的 CNRI 許可協議
- Python 0.9.0 至 1.2 的 CWI 許可協議
- 集成軟件的許可和認可
- Mersenne Twister
- 套接字
- Asynchronous socket services
- Cookie management
- Execution tracing
- UUencode and UUdecode functions
- XML Remote Procedure Calls
- test_epoll
- Select kqueue
- SipHash24
- strtod and dtoa
- OpenSSL
- expat
- libffi
- zlib
- cfuhash
- libmpdec